Wednesday, July 31, 2019

Idiots movie friendship analysis

Having a chance to watch the movie entitled, The 3 Idiots, made me change what I see and think of about life. It changed who I am now, and it changed how I live my life. It's very an inspirational movie and it really gives us different moral lessons about different aspects in life. Dealing with a career, friendships, professors, problems and most importantly family. After watching this movie, all I can say is, â€Å"All is Well. † This movie really made me hit me on my head real hard to finally realize how life would be fun without thinking too such of the problems.The concept of movie is very well conveyed to the audience who watched it, of course it really shows how one would deal with life. Dealing with career is quite hard. I mean, thinking on which road to take: what your parents want for you to make them happy, or what you really want to make you happy. It's hard to choose between those but all you have to do is to choose whatever you will not regret at the end, and whic h can really make you happy in the end. Dealing with professors. All professors are different in their own. And we have to at least understand and give respect.Since, they are our professor, they are Just there to guide us to be successful in the road we've took. Dealing with problems. They say, â€Å"Suicide is a permanent solution for a temporary problem. † Yeah, it's true, nowadays, people tend to commit suicide because of the problems in life but it is a murder to commit suicide. It's a sin to kill yourself. Life is full of choice and it all depends on you whether to be happy of not. Dealing with Family. They are the ones who guides us in almost every road we take and we should never ever fail them 'cause we know they are the only ones who can ally help us stand to be more successful.Dealing with friends. This movie is really all about friends. Friends are the ones who could really help you change yourself and become stronger more than ever they will help you in a way tha t you will never ever forget. After watching 3 idiots, Vive realize these things and it is a really great movie to show to everyone and be inspired in their life and think of positive things. This movie will help you be an optimist and see life on a brighter side. His movie is quite funny, and it will not get you bore. It will make you laugh till you cry and will make you cry and touch your hearts.

Health Insurance For The Poor Health And Social Care Essay

For people populating below poorness line, a wellness job non merely represents a kind of lasting menace to their income earning capacity, most of the times it consequences in the household falling into a debt trap. Whenever the necessity to acquire the intervention arises for hapless households they by and large ignore it because of deficiency of resources, fearing pay loss, or may be wait till the last minute finally when it ‘s excessively late. Even when the hapless do make up one's mind to obtain the coveted wellness attention it eats their nest eggs, forces them to sell their belongings or to slit other of import disbursement like kids ‘s instruction ) The ultimate end of wellness attention funding is to accomplish cosmopolitan wellness attention coverage for all. Social wellness insurance is a mechanism for pull offing and financing wellness attention through pooling of wellness hazards of its members on the one manus, and the fiscal parts of endeavors, families, and the authorities, on the other. SHI ( Social Health Insurance ) is â€Å" a fiscal protection mechanism for wellness attention, through wellness hazard sharing and fund pooling for a larger group of population † .1.2 Introduction about RSBY:Rashtriya Swasthya Bima Yojana or RSBY started from 1st April 2008 after a critical reappraisal was done of the bing and earlier wellness insurance strategies. RSBY has been launched by Ministry of Labour and Employment, Government of India to supply wellness insurance coverage for Below Poverty Line ( BPL ) households. The â€Å" nonsubjective † of RSBY is to supply protection to BPL families from fiscal liabilities originating out of wellness dazes that involve hospitalization. Beneficiaries under RSBY are entitled to hospitalization coverage up to Rs. 30,000/- for most of the diseases that require hospitalization.1.3 Eligibility and BenefitsUnorganized workers belonging to BPL class and their household members. Recently, other classs of people were besides added to the range of the RSBY. They include edifice and other building workers, MNREGA donees, street sellers, beedi workers and house servants. This enlargement has created an added patient volume to be taken attention of. Coverage extends to five members of the household which includes the caput of family, partner and up to three dependants. It covers preexistent conditions and there is no age bound. Entire amount insured would be Rs. 30000/- per household per annum on a household floater footing. Cashless attending to all covered complaints. Transportation system costs with an overall bound of Rs.1000/- for which no cogent evidence entry is required. Beneficiaries need to pay merely Rs. 30/- as the enrollment fee while the Central and State Government pays the premium to the insurance company selected on the footing of a competitory command by the province authorities.1.4 Unique characteristics of RSBY1.4.1 A concern theoretical account strategy For a societal sector scheme the strategy has been designed as a concern theoretical account strategy with inducements built for each interest holder which is contributing for enlargement and sustainability. 1.4.2 Empowering the donee RSBY provides the take parting BPL family with freedom of pick between public and private infirmaries. A infirmary has the inducement to supply intervention to big figure of donees as it is paid per donee treated. Even public infirmaries have the inducement to handle donees under RSBY as the money from the insurance company will travel straight to the concerned public infirmary can be used by them for their ain intents. 1.4.3 IT ( Information Technology ) Intensive For the first clip IT applications are being used for societal sector strategy on such a big graduated table. Every beneficiary household is issued a biometric enabled smart card incorporating their fingerprints and exposure, around 32,423,483 cards have been issued till 7/9/12. All the infirmaries empanelled under RSBY are IT enabled and connected to the waiter at the territory degree. This helps to guarantee a smooth information flow sing service use sporadically. 1.4.4 Safe and sap cogent evidence Insurance companies, in contrast, will supervise the participating infirmaries in order to forestall fraud or unneeded processs ensuing in inordinate claims. It besides attempts to better the operation of public wellness suppliers via advancing a healthy competition between public and private suppliers. By paying merely a upper limit amount up to Rs. 750/- per household per twelvemonth, the Government is able to supply entree to quality wellness attention to the below poorness line population.1.5 Functioning of RSBY as a strategy1.5.1 Financing of RSBY The Government of India ( GOI ) provides 75 % funding while the remainder 25 % is provided by the State authorities. The choice of a public or private insurance company is done through the procedure of competitory command undertaken by State authorities. 1.5.2 Selection of wellness insurance company and Empanelment of Health Care Providers The choice of the wellness insurance supplier shall be done by the province through tendering procedure ask foring both Public and Private Insurers for better footings of mention. Merely those insurance companies which are licensed by the Insurance Regulatory Development Authority ( IRDA ) are included in the procedure. The State Government would explicate the undertakings and find the implementing bureau such as Insurance Trust/ Insurance Cell/ Mother NGO etc. to monitor/supervise the strategy and integrate with insurance company. This would be farther monitored at State and Central degree. After the insurance company is selected, they need to impanel both public and private wellness attention suppliers in the undertaking and nearby territories. The empanelment of the infirmaries is done based on prescribed standards which shall be done every bit shortly as the insurance company gets the contract and it can go on at the same time with the registration of the donees. The insurance company shall impanel adequate infirmaries in the territory so that donees need non go really far to acquire the heath attention services. The insurance company besides needs to organize with several wellness section of the province. These infirmaries are required to put in necessary hardware and package so that smart card minutess can be processed. They should besides put up a particular RSBY desk with a trained staff. The hospital list should let for both public and private infirmaries who agree to take part. At the clip of registration the insurance company must besides supply a list of RSBY empanelled infirmaries, to the donees. When empanelment takes topographic point, a nationally alone infirmary ID figure is generated so that minutess can be tracked at each infirmary. 1.5.3 Role of IT in RSBY/ Smart Cards The usage of biometric enabled smart card and a cardinal direction system makes this scheme safe and foolproof. The biometric enabled smart card ensures that merely the existent donee can utilize the smart card. The cardinal characteristic of RSBY is that a beneficiary enrolled in a peculiar territory will be able to utilize his/ her smart card in any RSBY empanelled hospital across India. This characteristic makes the strategy truly alone and good to the hapless households that migrate from one topographic point to the other. A donee of RSBY gets cashless benefit in any of the empanelled infirmaries. He/ she merely needs to transport his/ her smart card and supply confirmation through his/ her finger print. 1.5.4 Use of services by donees The dealing procedure begins when the member visits the active infirmary. After making the infirmary, donee will see the RSBY aid desk at infirmary where his individuality will be verified by the smart card. If a diagnosing leads to a hospitalization, the helper at the aid desk checks whether the process is in the list of pre-specified bundles. If the process is in the list, the appropriate prescribed bundle is selected from the bill of fare. If the process is non in the bundle list, the aid desk helper cheques with the insurance company sing the monetary value for that process. Upon release of the donee from the infirmary, the card is once more swiped along with finger print confirmation and the pre-specified cost of the process is deducted from the sum available on the card. The donee is besides paid by the infirmary Rs. 100 as transit disbursal at the clip of the discharge. 1.5.5 Claim colony After the service is rendered to the patient, the infirmaries need to direct an electronic study to the insurer/ Third Party Administrator ( TPA ) . The Insurer/ TPA after traveling through the records information will do the payment to the infirmary within a specified clip period which has been agreed between the Insurer and the infirmary. 1.5.6 Monitoring and rating Information associating to minutess taking topographic point each twenty-four hours at each infirmary is sent through a phone line to a territory waiter. A separate set of pre-formatted tabular arraies are generated for the insurance company and for the authorities severally. This allows the insurance company to track claims, reassign financess to the infirmaries and investigate in the instance of leery claim forms through on-site audits.1.6 Impact of RSBY on wellness attention use1.6.1 Penetration of RSBY Scheme Since its induction, 26 States including 1 brotherhood district have advertised about it. So far, out of these 26 provinces, the registration procedure and empanelment of infirmaries has been initiated in merely 22 provinces. Out of a entire 631 territories in India, BPL households shacking in 399 territories were selected for obtaining RSBY screen. It is of import to observe that provinces in which the registration procedure has been completed, the entire BPL households enrolled, out of the selected BPL population, are merely approximately 57 % . Though the incursion of the strategy has non been every bit high as expected. This might be due to really low degree of consciousness and instruction among the multitudes about the benefits of the strategy, or possibly to the complicated procedural or deficiency of earnestness in the execution of the strategy. But the plan is even operational in Naxal-prone territories ( such as Rayagarh, Sambalpur and Deogarh ) , which have experienced much anti-government force and snatchs. 1.6.2 Utilization of wellness attention benefits under RSBY strategy The RSBY strategy has used the public private partnership ( PPP ) theoretical account for the empanelment of infirmaries in the strategy. Hence, both public and private wellness attention suppliers have been empanelled under the strategy. So far more than 4,000 infirmaries ( out of which 75 % infirmaries are private infirmaries ) have been empanelled and more than half a million in population have obtained intervention in these infirmaries. The high degree of engagement of private infirmaries shows the success and credence of the strategy among private infirmaries. The use of health care installations under RSBY strategy is highest in the province of Kerala and lowest in instance of province of Assam. The empanelment of the figure of infirmaries for BPL households in each province is really unevenly distributed 1.6.3 Nature of disease intervention under RSBY The insured BPL households are using insurance screen most of the times ( i.e. approx two tierce of respondents ) for chronic diseases such as hernia, kidney diseases, haemorrhoids, high blood pressure, and nutritionary lacks etc. The 2nd most of import usage of RSBY screen is to acquire intervention for acute conditions like enteric fever, dandy fever febrility, diarrhoea, enteric fever, viral hepatitis, rubeolas, malaria, and TB. Among the nature of intervention received, both surgical and medical intervention has an about tantamount portion i.e. 46 % surgical and 54 % medical intervention. 1.6.4 Substitution of use of no/informal wellness installation to formal wellness installations Though with the debut of the RSBY strategy, the handiness to, and use of, the formal health care system has improved among BPL households, but at the same clip still there is long manner to travel as most of the population ( i.e. more than 70 % of BPL population of India ) has yet non been covered under the RSBY Scheme. 1.6.5 Impact of RSBY on wellness results Since the RSBY strategy was launched merely a few old ages ago, it is non possible see its impact in footings of the decrease of mortality rate, disease load, and disablement. studies conducted by the ministry so far have indicated a beneficiary satisfaction ratio runing between 77 % and 92 % . Access to the infirmaries for the hapless has gone up from 1.7 % to 2.7 % , harmonizing to the National Sample Survey Organization 1.6.6 Dissemination of information and cognition about RSBY The word of oral cavity spreading, interaction with ASHA, ANMs, AWWs, Aanganwadi Workers and Loudspeaker proclamations were the most of import beginning of information and cognition about the RSBY strategy among donees. It is seen that though donees of the strategy are cognizant of the rudimentss of the strategy, like the sum of entire coverage available, figure of household members covered, and sum required to pay for acquiring enrollment etc, there awareness related to assorted entitlements granted by the strategy like transit costs, nature of interventions covered, coverage for disbursals on Out Patient Department ( OPD ) intervention was really hapless. This low consciousness could take to struggles, moral jeopardies ( over/mis use of wellness attention installations ) and dissatisfactions among donees. 1.6.7 Impact of the RSBY strategy on economic result Micro wellness insurance, hence, involves a direct economic load ab initio placed on the insurance company who clears the hospitalization outgo on the behalf of the insured and of the Government who pays the insurance premium on the behalf of the BPL family. Other than the direct costs, selling and disposal costs besides add to the economic load. Higher claim colony rates and disposal costs result in high claim/loss rates, casts uncertainties on the long-run sustainability of wellness insurance strategies. States like Gujarat, Haryana, and Kerala show a high claim ratio. This high claim ratio is bespeaking a prevalence of over use of wellness services i.e. moral jeopardies, projecting uncertainties on the long-run sustainability of the RSBY. 1.6.8 Impact of the RSBY strategy on behaviour of BPL families While insurance companies pay for the majority of the cost in instance of a private system, authorities pools are used if proviso is public, the consumer pays merely a little portion of the entire cost i.e. out-of pocket on ingestion of the wellness service. Irrespective of how wellness attention is financed, one fact is that one time people have fallen ill they face inducements to devour more than optimum wellness attention, since they do non hold to pay the full marginal cost for the attention they utilize. The wellness economic sciences literature refers to this sort of behaviour as a moral jeopardy. The use of formal of wellness installations has increased significantly after the micro wellness insurance screen under the RSBY. This is supported reported by National Sample Survey Organization 60th the figure of hospitalization instances for Monthly Per Capita Consumer Expenditure ( MPCE ) , less than INR 253. The per centum of BPL population hospitalized across India has increased from 0.28 % ( in twelvemonth 2005 ) to 2.69 % , 2.39 % and 1.5 % of enrolled BPL population in the provinces of Kerala, Gujarat and Haryana severally. Hence, hypothesis 1 about the increased use of the Health attention installation ( No. of hospitalization ) after the RSBY execution was supported. Switching penchants ( from populace to private infirmaries ) of donees. Similar phenomenon can be seen in footings of the altering penchants of the donees from public to private infirmaries. These changed penchants and behavior show window the presence of moral jeopardies in the RSBY strategy every bit good, l ike other wellness insurance strategies.

Tuesday, July 30, 2019

British Health System for US.

The British Health System has been one of the most successful in the world. It has been claimed as the best system in the world. The United States also has got its own health system administered through the Health Management Organizations (HMOs). The US has disagreed with this claim by the United Kingdom and as a result, several studies have been carried out to establish how best and competent the British National Health Service system is compared to system being used in the US. This paper is going to discuss this claim.First, it will describe the National Health System of Britain, how well it is working for the British, then a comparison of the health care needs for the Britain's population and the United States population will be made as well as other considerations that need to be assessed before it is decided whether the NHS is appropriate for the US. An argument as to whether the model may or may not be adopted will be made before a position stand and a conclusion are made. Desc ribe the NHS 650 The NHS is the health care system in Britain which is public funded.It provides services to any resident of the UK with most of the services being free at the of use by patients. However, eye tests, care for teeth, prescriptions and personalized health cares are charged. The system is the England's major health care provider. It was established through an Act of Parliament in 1946. It has been paralleled by the private health care sector which serves less than 8 percent of the population. Much of the funding is from taxation of the citizens. This system is under the administration of the Department of Health. Most of the department's budget is allocated to the NHS.It has now been established that the NHS is the largest health service in the world and is also the fourth largest direct employer in the world (Luft, 2000, p. 17). A brief history of the NHS reveals that it was created by Clement Attlee's Labor government in an effort to bring welfare- state reforms. Just like any other organization, the NHS has got its core principles. It is committed to ensure quality health care to every one, free services at times of need based on the client's medical need but not based on their economic status (D H. ,2000, p. 57).The main aims of the system is to provide global service on the basis of peoples clinical needs but not their ability to pay, to offer a comprehensive set of services, to adjust to ensure the services they offer addresses the needs and preferences of people as individuals, as families and those care for them, to offer services that address the needs of various populations, to ensure minimal errors in their work while improving the quality of their services, to value and support the professional and support staff, to utilize public funds allocated for health care to address the needs of NHS patients only, to partner with other providers of similar services to ensure seamless service to clients, to work towards having a healthy nation wi th minimal health inequalities, to keep the individual clients confidentiality while providing free access to information related services, performance and treatment information.The structure of NHS in Britain begins from the Department of Health which takes care of the political issues concerning the service. Under the DH are 10 strategic health facilities (SHAs) which are in charge of all NHS operations specifically the primary care trusts in their regions. The NHS trusts are several and include Primary Care Trusts which are in charge of primary care and general public health. They have been reduced by almost half in the recent past to reduce costs and to bring services closer together. These Primary Care Trusts oversee about 29000 general practitioners and about 18000 dentists within the NHS system and also commission acute services emerging from other Trusts within the NHS and private sector.These trusts control about 80 % of the total NHS allocated budget. Other administrative structures under the Department of Health include NHS Hospital Trusts, Ambulance Services Trusts, Direct Trusts in charge of communications, Trusts in charge of mental health as well as care trusts (HPEDIS- US,2000, p. 26). The system has the largest number of staff of about with 1. 3 million workers and nearly all medical doctors and nurses in Britain working either in the NHS or in the Trusts or NHS run hospitals. The budget for NHS in the 2008/9 fiscal year is about 94 billion and all is from government funds (Dudley, 2001, 1088). NHS working for the BritishThe British National Health Service has in the recent past been claiming that the way it uses its resources is one of the best and most effective systems of health care in the world. The truth about this claim has been known when it was established that the system is cost effective with a per capita expenditure of about 1,764 US dollars. The British National Health Service provides very comprehensive health service to the citi zen of the United Kingdom. Some of the services in this system include admission in hospitals, outpatient services, preventive and ambulatory care services, quick response services to address cases involving accidents and other forms of emergencies, sebacute care, eye clinic services, dental care, rehabilitation of patients as well as home based health care.The British National Health Service system allows free access to medicines and other prescriptions to populations who fall under the social category of children (those below 16 years of age), the senior citizens (above 60 years) and those with special needs like the disabled (Anderson,2001, p. 230). British National Health Service has also subsidized the cost of buying medicines and other prescriptions to an average cost of about10 US dollars to the rest of the population who lies within the remaining age bracket and social groups. The National Health Service is working very well for British in remitting dental and long term psyc hiatric care needs for its population. The non medical residential health care is one of the National Health Service's programs that are run outside the system's budget.It is essential to note that the National Health Service system is for the service of the whole population in Britain and this is a good stance when compared to other world systems, for example in the Health Maintenance Organizations (HMOs) in United States, that serve only the members who comprise mainly the government and private sector employees (Luck,2001,p. 153). Health care needs of the US population Versus the needs of the UK population The health care needs of the United States population and that of the population of the United Kingdom can be deduced from the the mandates of the National Health system of Britain and the Health Maintenance Organizations of the United States because these two systems were set up to address the medical needs of their populations.Kaiser Permanente based in California is the larg est Health Maintenance Organization in the United States and shares every aspect with all other Health Maintenance Organizations and therefore the health care needs, the organization, administration, health care delivery and the kind of services delivered are very similar and therefore in this discussion, the health care needs of the population visiting Kaiser Permanente will be assumed to represent the health care needs of the whole population of the United States (Buisson,2001, p. 34). Before patients get treated, it is a medical requirement to meet a physician for consultation and diagnosis to establish the kind of disease or condition he or she is suffering from. Whether in the United Kingdom or in the United States, all patients have this common need.But the way this need id addressed in the health facilities of these two countries is quite different (Barakat,Wilkinson,Suliman,2003. p. 642). First, the amount of time that patients have to spend before they make consultations is longer in the United Kingdom than in the United States. This was established following a study that was carried out to establish efficiency in service delivery in these two countries. From the study, it was shown that it takes 13 weeks for about 80 % of patients who are referred to physicians before they actually meet the physicians in the United Kingdom while the same size of patient population in the United States take only about 2 weeks before they actually meet their physicians (Richard, 2002,p. 139).Similarly, for 90 % of patients who needs inpatient treatment have their needs met within a period of 13 weeks in the United States while the only about 41 percent of patients in need of inpatient treatment in the United Kingdom of the Great Britain can have their needs addressed within the same period of time. 90 % of the people who have been diagonalized and a surgery prescribed in the United States takes about 13 weeks before their medical needs can be met while for the same per iod of time only 41 % of similar population in the United Kingdom will have be treated. Also, the number of days a patient spends in waiting for his medical administration otherwise called bed days in the US are far much fewer than in the Unites Kingdom based on collected statistics that indicates that 1000 patients spends an average of 327 acute bed days in the US compared to 1000 acute bed days in Britain for the same population. (WHO, 2000, p. 27).Concerning the insurance need of the population, competition in the US Health Management organizations (HMOs) has led to an efficient satisfaction of this need because the people can shift from one Health Management Organization to another if they are not satisfied with the way their medical insurance needs are being met. This is because most HMOs in US are not funded by the government and therefore they have to catch up and compete favorably with the market forces of supply and demand which calls for quality services when competition i s tight. Whether customers are satisfied or not by the way the UK NHS addresses their insurance needs, they have limited choice since the NHS is supported by the taxes they pay to the government. This implies that the need for insurance in the National Health Service is poorly met compared to the Health Management Organizations. Both populations require cheaper access to prescribed medicines.The National Health Service has tried to meet this need partly by exempting those with special needs, the aged (over 60 years) and the children (those under 16 years of age) while the rest of the population pay about six pounds for all prescriptions. The US Health Management Organizations have done very little in meeting this need because the population pays about five US dollars for every prescription (Sekhri, 2000, p. 834). It appears that the British population requires more long – term psychiatric care and dental health services than the United States population. This argument is base d on the fact that the expanse and distribution of the health facilities and related services is determined by the immediate medical needs of the respective population.Based on the same argument, it is likely that the United Kingdom population's non medical health health needs necessitated the establishment of a long term care and home based health care. Since this kind of care has not been established established within the US Health Management Organizations, it is arguable that the US population do not have such health needs or else the needs are too few and thus too insignificant to necessitate provision of these services by the Health Management Organizations. Other factors to consider in determining the appropriateness of the NHS model for the US It is important to access the kind of policies that govern the administration of National Health Service whether they are compatible with the current policies in administration of Health Management Organizations.For example, there are policies that limit the amount of hospitalization the Health Management Organizations will cover. These policies are meant to ensure that less money is spend on hospitalization so that more money can be spend on other types of care such as surgical and specialists procedures. The compatibility of National Health Service policies (which are considered lesser) to the Health Management Organizations' policies should be considered to avoid policy conflicts in case the National Health Service system is adopted in the United States. It is essential also to consider whether National Health service will be in a position to meet the insurance needs of the United States population.Due to competition in health care provision in the US, the US population has been used to effective ways of satisfying their health insurance needs. If National Health System is introduced in place of Health Management organizations, the US population will be forced to adopt to a less efficient system. This is a ret rogressive trend in the health care provision sector and much of the population will be opposed to this new system. However, it is important to consider whether the current system in Britain provide for adjustments to make it more competitive and therefore uplift it to fit in the United States context. If such provisions are impossible, it will also be impossible to have this system in the medical and health service of the US population.Still on the issue of insurance, about 12 % of the United Kingdom population has taken private medical insurance as a security in case they may require non emergency surgeries or they may need to access specialists quickly(HCFA, 1998, p. 36). On the other hand, very few Americans have taken this private health insurance. Much of the population rely a single health insurance which has served them efficiently. Based on this point of view, the United States government may need to consider the fate of its population when they need to access specialists o r non emergency surgery because the National Health Service seems to be slow in reacting to these needs. Adopting a new health system should be aimed at improving the welfare of the US population. Any new system require the support of the population and politicians.The government should first consider civic education to enlighten the population on the benefits of shifting the health care system from the Health Management Organizations to National Health Service system in order to win the social and political goodwill with respect to introducing the new system. Argument: The model may or may not work The introduction of the National Health Service system of Britain in place of the America's Health Management Organizations to serve the American people may from one point of view be workable while it is totally an impossibility from another point of stand. The National health Service covers groups of populations from all socio-economic classes, but in America, Health Management Organiza tions mainly serve those in the mid- lower to middle socio- economic groups because the rich families go for health care options that are a little bit expensive and more flexible.The health systems used in America, according to the US standards, are in the ‘working class' category (Blendon, 2001, p. 37). But the population has the poor and non working people who would be happier to enjoy health care. With the support of this population and politicians who support equality and respect the opinion the minority, the adoption of the National Health Service in the US can be made a reality. The system may be supported by the population on the basis of the subsidized pharmaceutical costs. Currently, the cost of pharmaceuticals in the US is 2 percent to 60 percent higher than that of Britain and the US population admire this aspect of the National Health Service (Ayanian, 2001, p. 60).It is also important to note that National Health Service system is set to serve the entire populatio n while American Health Management Organizations system serve its members who majority get the membership through health plans that have been sponsored by their employers or by the government. This leaves out the unemployed population. For the government to ensure parity in health services provision to its citizens irrespective of their employment or economic status, it may require to consider the National Health Service system. Most citizens of the US require adequate dental care services, but this need has not been addressed well by the current health care system.On the other hand, the health care system of Britain has optimized on this population need. Therefore, with the introduction of National Health Service system, it is possible a large size of the US population will embrace it. On the other hand, data sources have revealed that general practitioners who give general care to patients within the National Health Service system have a starting salary of 43 % lower than their co unterparts in the US. For health care consultants serving within the US Health Management Organizations System, their starting salaries are about 115 % higher than the starting salaries of their counterparts holding the same positions within the Britain's National Health Service System (Danzon,2000, p. 170).If the system is adopted in the United States with its salary scale policies, it will be a major demobilization to the medical practitioners mainly due to the low salaries. This will lead to poor quality service which cannot be tolerated in the US. In short, the National Health Service system can not work in the US unless major amendments are made. If the decision of whether to adopt the National Health Service system or not were to be based on the per capita cost of medication, then the Americans will be less responsive because there will be no difference in the cost of medication per year. However, this is a generalized opinion based on national a figure.There will be no signif icant change in the economic status of the US because the per capita expenditure in medication for these two countries is appropriately the same. The Britain system has also been viewed to be slower than the current system in use in the US. Conclusion It is true that the British National Health Service system is one of the best performing systems of the world but this is in respect to certain aspects like its workforce, the way it considers the poor, and diverse services. But the current system operating in America is in itself more efficient and effective and most citizens are comfortable with it. The NHS offers very little salaries to practitioners and this in America can be a risk, because it will lead to poor services.Americans can never accept a system that is going to make them lark behind and therefore cannot accept the NHS system. References: Anderson, G. (2001). Health system performance compared. Health Affairs . 20: 219-232. Ayanian, J. , Quinn, T. (2001). Quality care. H ealth Affairs. 20: 55-67. Barakat, K. , Wilkinson, P. and Suliman, A. (2003). Performance measures . Am Heart Journ. 143: 640-646. Blendon, R. and Benson J. (2001). How Americans view health policy. Health Aff. 20: 33-46 Buisson, L. (2001). UK market sector. Private medical insurance report . 12: 31-35. Danzon, P. and Chao, W. (2000). Pharmaceutical prices compared. J Health Econ.19: 159-195 D H. (2000). Plan for investment and reform. The NHS plan. Stationery Office: London. Dudley, R. (2001). Managed care in transition. Engl J Med. 344: 1087-1092 HCFA. (1998). 1980-1998 State health care expenditures. DHHS. 13: 24-37. HPEDIS- US. (2000). Models for a national performance measures. Kaiser Permanente program overview. 17: 21-28. Luck, J. (2001). Talking to our patients. Gen Intern Med. 16: 153. Luft, M. (2000). Managed care lead quality of care. Health Affairs. 16: 7-25. Richard, G. (2002). NHS compared with Kaiser Permanente. British Medical Journal. 324:135-143. Sekhri, N. (2000). US Experience. The Managed Care. 78: 830-844.

Monday, July 29, 2019

Tasty Meals LtD Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Tasty Meals LtD Case Study - Essay Example Therefore, the profit margins of the company are high, and they owe the success of the business to the employees since the employees are the driving force of the company. Consequently, Tasty meals Ltd should increase their hourly rate wages to employees, and treat them well. The Philippines is one of the most populated countries in the Middle East and the business tends to thrive in this market. Therefore, employees have a justification to get a pay rise and respectful treatment from the authorities. 2. Should Tasty meals Ltd be held responsible for the problems caused by unhealthy junk foods and high--?calorie? Why or why not? (hint; in a free market, customers have plenty of alternatives to Tasty meals Ltd to choose from) It is the corporate social responsibility of a company or organization to ensure that it meets the requirements of its customers and deliver the appropriate services to clients. Therefore, tasty meals Ltd should be accountable for the problems caused by unhealthy junk food. In any business, the customer should come first because he or she is the heart of the business. Without a customer in place, the company is bound to fail or collapse. Therefore, the chain of restaurant should ensure that it delivers healthy foods by taking into account the health issues of its customers. Since it is widely known in the country based on its services and its products, the restaurant should ensure that it maintains its brand name by offering quality services. It should invest more in healthy foods and avoid junk, which is unhealthy. Obviously, customers have other alternatives to tasty meals but that does not justify the company providing unhealthy food to its customers. 3. Is it reasonable to demand from Tasty meals Ltd to give up a cost effective and Convenient use of disposable tableware and containers because it is considered being unfriendly to the environment? Why or why not? For a company such as tasty meals and especially in the hospitality industry, it is the prerogative of the company to ensure that it uses efficient disposable tableware. This will earn it an impeachable reputation, and it will attract many customers. In today’s world, customers are highly sensitive to the operations of a company and tend to scrutinize its social and environmental responsibility. It is, therefore, reasonable to demand cost effective and convenient use of disposable tableware and containers from the restaurant. This will ensure a healthy and safe environment from its operations. 4. Is it reasonable to demand from Tasty meals Ltd to impose its code of conduct directives to the suppliers it works with if they are involved in illegal or unethical practices? Do you agree? Why (not)? Tasty meals Ltd should ensure that it maintains its brand name by ensuring that it is involved in good and legitimate practices. Therefore, it is reasonable to make demands from the restaurant to impose its conduct directives to suppliers. This will ensure that advertising and marketing strategies gear towards creating positive awareness of the company. It must ensure that its suppliers are involved in legal and ethical practices to build on the reputation of tasty meals. The restaurant should withdraw services if it realizes that the suppliers are involved in illegal and unethical practices. 5. Overall do you consider Tasty meals Ltd complying with corporate governance principles? Can it be said that Tasty meals Ltd is an ethical and socially responsible Corporation? Tasty

Sunday, July 28, 2019

Cultural and Historical Analysis of Sophia Loren and Jayne Mansfield Assignment

Cultural and Historical Analysis of Sophia Loren and Jayne Mansfield at Romanoffs - Assignment Example The extreme part of the photo shows when Jayne; who was seated between Sophie and her dinner companion attempted to pick an object from the table, which left her nipple exposed. Although many would feel that it is jealous that is reflected in the eyes of Sophie, there would be others who would judge that instead of jealous the film star from Italy would have been harboring the feeling of a lack of comfort or disagreement since they held opposite beliefs from each other. Jayne was known for exposing her cleavage and most of the time made a living from it. As such, it may not be everyone including Sophie who would agree with her on that. They exhibit their differences based on the variation in glamour, superiority and high esteem that the American superstars from Hollywood had as opposed to their Italian counterparts owing to the high ratings of their films. The main themes that are brought about in the photo include the feeling of jealousy, which results from the differences in attitudes and personality of people from different areas. It is also contributed by the need for attention by individuals who consider themselves celebrities and would; therefore like to be noticed any time they are in the public limelight. The main theme of jealousy does not begin only at the time that the photo is taken. As is indicated by Buckley (2015), there is a historical influence that creates the difference in glamour between American film stars and the film actresses from Italy. This results in a great difference between the Italian glamour and the American glamour. A general picture about the two film stars in revealed through the opinion of the writer. Owing to the kind of glamour that is exhibited by a film star, the public opinion may also be different. It can be said that the public had a low opinion of the Italian actresses which made them

Saturday, July 27, 2019

Integration paper Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Integration paper - Assignment Example The first tool used to formulate an investment strategy is the feasibility of making concentrated purchases (Fabozzi, F., Focardi, S. & Kolm, P. 2010, 22). Concentrated purchases simply entail the buying of shares or stocks at times when the industry that a firm is operating in has been hit by economic meltdowns. Often, investors or firms cogitate on this tool before formulating an investment strategy. This is because equity markets are believed to yield good returns in the long run. Thus, making concentrated purchases can give a high probability that an investor or firm will earn good returns in the long run when the economy stabilizes (Russell, C. 2006, 34). The second tool is value investment, which involves stock purchases at a cheaper price that is lower than its intrinsic value (Götze, U., Northcott, D. & Schuster, P. 2008, 56). The purchase of stocks at such rates reflects the future value of the stocks to rise as opposed to the present value. The last tool is risk assessm ent, which generally engrosses the evaluation of the possible risks associated with an investment venture. Before the formulation of a strategy, a firm must always recognize the financial perils exposing themselves to so that they can avert potential risks (Russell, C. 2006, 56). The link between investment strategies of a firm and its environments cannot be dismissed. To begin with, a firm highly depends on the financial markets for profitability when it has invested, say, in shares (Herbst, A. 2002, 29). The dynamics of a financial market within which a firm operates, determine the profit margin that it gets. When the financial markets are selling shares at reasonable prices, a firm can quickly buy them. However, when a market needs to sell its shares and the market price is low, it will end up making losses (Russell, C.2006, 61). Thus, the financial market within which a firm operates is a key determinant of its profitability. This implies that

Friday, July 26, 2019

Mobiles retailing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Mobiles retailing - Essay Example The mobile solution providers have made this possible through the provision of a wide range and convenient mobile platforms. Smartphone is making all this possible as their sales and eventual effectiveness in eCommerce is proving and surpassing Tablets. For instance in the US, a larger percentage of the mobile transaction come from the Smartphones and this trend is forecast to be more prevalent. The introduction of large sized smartphones such as Samsung Galaxy and iPhone 6 has been a boost as more consumers increasingly prefer Smartphone arena for mobile transactions and ordering. Despite the fact that the conversion rates on smartphone tend to be a lower compared tablet or desktop, they are increasingly preferred by owners since they generate more transactions because of significantly higher traffic. Looking at the rate at which the Japanese employ Smartphone for various mobile transactions (90%) the future looks bright for Smartphones in mobile retailing. For the US, the situation is likely to improve in future as higher mobile conversion rates are expected due to increasingly turning browsing into com pleted mobile purchases. One probably trend forecast to be more prevalent in mobile retailing in future is increased mobile retailing of Fashion and Luxury products. Luxury goods and fashion retailers are controlling the industry in m-commerce, and as more shoppers increasingly to embrace mobile services in and out of fashion stores, likewise these retailers are forecast to continue broadening the gap existing between leaders and laggards. Closely related to this, Fashion and Luxury products retailers are currently having the highest share of mobile transactions. The world has also witnessed the first ever shoppable social network that will continue trending. The introduction of Net Set app will allow various users to shop while socializing with the stylish Net-A-Porter community. Various online beauty products have been made possible

Europe spices - food and history Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Europe spices - food and history - Essay Example All this was a way to disguise the often nasty odour and taste of food. Spices refer to the pungent or aromatic fruits, seeds, bark and other vegetable materials used to flavour, preserve or colour food. As a result, spices have often cast an enchantment on individuals’ imaginations. They have for a long period flattered people’s senses. Spices flattered people’s sight with their vivacious colours, smell with alluring fragrances, and taste with different and exceptional flavours. It is because of the search for spices that adventures, such as that of Christopher Columbus, took place. The search for spices and better ways to obtain them triggered the age of exploration and identification of new regions. The sources of spices were known by the Europeans, but relied on the Arabs in order to access them. The Europeans also wanted a direct route to reach the spices and it is for this reason that early explorers set their trail in search of spices. Early explorers such as Ferdinand Magellan, Bartholomeu Dias and Vasco da Gama were the fir st European explorers who started their journeys to identify the sources of spices. They were later joined by Columbus 1492 in search of the source of spices. Da Gama was one of the successful explorers and went back to Europe with cinnamon, cloves, peppercorns, and nutmegs from India and Africa (Keay 2006). Among all the goods that were traded in the ancient times, spices most significantly impacted history since they put Europe on the chase for ultimate foreign conquest, a downfall whose failure and success influence every element of modern world politics (Anderson 2007). The desire for spices inspired the commencement of the European colonial experience, a vigour that reshaped European politics, demography, ecology, economy and culture. In this regard, this paper will give a chronological account of the history of spices in Europe through the ancient

Thursday, July 25, 2019

Ethical issues in regards to social work Case Study

Ethical issues in regards to social work - Case Study Example In his personal point of view he has to inform the lady about the matter as he knows the lady and moreover it is a case against human values and morality. However, as per the professional ethics, the practitioner is not supposed to confide the things the client says to him and besides he has to do as much favour to the client. But it is said that if a problem becomes a great threat to the society the social worker has to maintain the social aspects of it and should work for it without discriminating the client. Therefore, it is imperative that the clinician has not only the â€Å"ethical responsibility to maintain the privacy and confidentiality of clients† but also â€Å"to practice within the confines of the law and in an ethical manner† (Corbin 2007). As evident, the social worker is here taken up by two ethical problems- personal and professional. The personal ethics tend him to speak this to the lady at once but the professional ethics pushes him into a dilemma and so he becomes reluctant to speak to the lady. If he speaks to the lady he violates the rule of confidentiality with the client. The code of ethics for National Association of Social Workers state that â€Å"social workers should protect the confidentiality of all information obtained in the course of professional service, except for compelling professional reasons†; however, it is not applicable â€Å"when disclosure is necessary to prevent serious, foreseeable, and imminent harm to a client or other identifiable person.† (School Shootings: Ethical & Confidentiality Boundary Issues). Therefore, in the given case, the clinician can disclose the information to prevent the imminent harm that will be done to the girl. However, as the professionalism stresse s confidentiality, the social worker here can also work hard to make the client realise the problems involved in his marriage. By marrying the lady he, not

Wednesday, July 24, 2019

Final Human Resource Management Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Final Human Resource Management Paper - Essay Example In order to achieve those organizational goals there should be a very good leadership style in organizational environment. There are many different leadership styles in the modern business world and almost every one of them has a particular reason or reasons for its existence. According to Burns (1978) transformational leadership has a set of category constructs such as values, morals, farsightedness, long term goals, principles, acute awareness about the dividing line between causes and symptoms, mission statements, strategic perspectives and human resources. Transformational leadership is primarily and immediately concerned with winning the support of those subordinates to achieve predefined organizational goals. While many such objectives are not realized in the short run due to a variety of reasons such as inadequate planning and wrong forecasts about cash flow, sales revenue and profits, there can be some recovery in the long term. Transformational leader seeks with fervent hope to inculcate a sense of responsibility and pride in achievements among the subordinates. A critical theoretical perspective that has been developed on this particular aspect looks at the transformational leader’s attitude towards his\her subordinates as power-sharing partners whose contribution to the productive process is rewarded with acknowledgment. However according to the leadership style in People Express it was centered on a hybrid model of the time, i.e. a good admixture of people orientation and share ownership in the company would motivate the average employee to perform better. The former is directly related to the transactional leadership theory while the latter is linked to the then populist ideological concept of ‘share owning democracy’ (www.harvardbusiness.org). Neither of them worked. Instead Burr should have focused on the very management and organizational culture at People Express. For instance he

Tuesday, July 23, 2019

Workplace simulation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Workplace simulation - Essay Example The company prides itself on having a large customer base and manufacturing plants in China, San Jose, Georgia and Michigan. This expansion and apparent success may be attributed to the organizations commitment to R&D, customer satisfaction, quality management, employee satisfaction and clear vision of the future. This is clear from the company's mission statements. However, to further enhance and maintain this success Riordan Manufacturing Inc. intends to take advantage of more sophisticated, state of the art information systems technology into its HR department. This is successfully achieved if the right information is gathered to determine what is technology would best enhance the achievement of company's mission. Before Riordan manufacturing embarks on this major project, it has to ensure that enough information is gathered from all stakeholders and beneficiaries of the project in order to make a well thought out and informed decision. Techniques of gathering information include; questionnaire, internet research, surveys, interview and prototyping (experiments) For this project to be feasible, I would propose HRIS. An online solution facilitates data entry, data tracking, and information needs of the Human Resource (Susan M. Health field). This is because, Riordan manufacturers Inc. ... So how does HRIS enable this A good HRIS is capable of managing employee's information such as benefits calculation and updating, payroll administration resume processing and management, analyzing employee information and so on. The advantage with this system is that it frees the employee's time of petty destructions and enables them focus on more strategic functions in the company. To the managers it provides them with relevant information regarding the employees, which enable them give legal or ethical support to its employees. This is inline with Riordan Inc mission thus a great asset. (Reh, 2001) HRMS are form of human resource information systems, which facilitate the administration tasks, and processes employees information right from employment to the time they exit the organization companies like spectrum HRS Corporation offers particularly good packages for this systems. The benefit of this state of the Art solution is that it will reduce administrative cost, and increase pr ofitability. Riordan manufacturing future goal is to achieve and maintain reasonable profitability and ensure financial and human capital is available for sustainable growth. I feel that installing a HRMS would greatly contribute to this end. Not only will a HRMS reduce costs it has an automated feature that instantly analyses and provides reports and reduces paper work. In addition a HRMs provides a centralized information source thorough which the organization intranet and extranets provide access to the centralized information server. The benefit of this is that the employees and managers morale boosted and adequate time left for HR managers to focus on more important issues that need hands-on approach. The company

Monday, July 22, 2019

Discrimination Concerning African Americans Essay Example for Free

Discrimination Concerning African Americans Essay Differences in race lead to divergent levels of economic development within the United States. Analysts often try to explain this phenomenon by observing a specific ethnic groups tradition and cultural ideology. Economists expand their analysis on the economic behaviors of African Americans by taking into consideration personal histories and value systems of the group under study. American families measure economic status in terms of income, and factors associated with material security as a whole. These factors may consist of health care, college funds, and retirement plans. However, African American families lag well behind when conceptualizing economic development under these terms. The reason is due to numerous instances of discrimination that occur in the U. S. Many of Americas public policies aid in the underdevelopment of non-white families. Increased economic development within America is the key to upward political and social mobility. If minorities are denied inevitable rights to equality, access to economic development becomes a highly difficult process. Despite Americas idealized view on equal opportunity, it is valid to assume that economic security has been limited on the basis of race. Therefore, it is important to investigate why white American families are economically better-off than non-white American families. One must take into account aspects of political participation, education, and the number of children a family has in the home in order to understand this research question. Contemporary Viewpoints: The lack of political participation of minority groups is a prevalent issue within the United States, explaining why non-white American families are less economically developed when compared to white American families. According to Douglas S. Massey (1995), minority families increasingly speak languages and bear cultures quite different than the established norms within the U. S. regime. He has found that ethnic groups carry their customs into new generations, leading many non-white families to become displaced and impoverished. Brinck Kerr and Will Miller (1997) believe that it is necessary for non-white American families to participate in elections in order to obtain equal representation that they are now lacking. They go on to say that political representation is the key to higher employment levels, and is a significant determinant to the minority share of professional positions. William H. Frey (1996) finds that immigrants usually encounter highly stratified society characterized by high income inequality leaving little room for upward mobility. In addition, Paula D. Mcklain (1990) assumes that non-white American families will continue to reside in low economic subcultures that are institutionally incomplete if they are represented at much lower ratios relative to the population portions of whites. Susan Welch (1990) has found that minority groups have not even achieved half their population proportions in political elections. These numbers are even lower than what they were a decade ago. She states that other factors that lead to low political participation within minority groups is that a substantial number of non-white American families are not citizens, and therefore are not eligible to vote. Also, Massey has found that America enacts policies that hinder the socioeconomic status of immigrants for they are underrepresented at virtually all levels and institutions in United States government. Moreover, Friedberg and Hunt (1995) have found that non-white American families receive less benefits than white families because of geographic segregation within the community. The various dispersion of minority families in different low-income areas within the U. S. makes it difficult for these families to be represented proportionally. Consequently, Rodney E. Hero and Caroline J. Tolbert (1995) believe minority families can now be easily manipulated by government because they are not equally accounted for. Therefore, non-white American families are not able to take advantage of economically developed determinants such as health care and retirement funds. The inscription of the Statue of liberty expresses to the world to give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free. America continuously contradicts itself on the validity of this concept due to the increasingly economic tension between Caucasian and non-white families. Friedberg and Hunt (1995) give the example of Proposition 187, which makes many non-white American families ineligible for certain services such as public health. Non-white American families are not given the opportunity to take advantage of benefactors the U. S. offers to white American families. Therefore, Non-white American families lack of political participation, and unequal representation in governmental institutions and legislative bodies, leads them to be less economically developed than white American families. Education is another obstacle to economic development that non-white families face. Education is a vital tool to economic security. However, Melissa Marschall (1997) has found that current policies demonstrate minorities have been denied equal access to education. She has found that assignment systems based on assessments of language deficiencies or other individual needs are used to separate non-whites from whites. According to Jeffrey J. Mondack and Diana C. Mutz (1997), inequitable school financing is equally detrimental to non-white students. Funding for public schools comes from property taxes. They go along to say that predomintly non-white schools tend to be in central inner city school districts which have a smaller property tax base. In addition, the Office of Civil Rights has identified practices that are termed second generation school discrimination. Practices such as ability grouping, suspensions, and tracking may appear on the surface to be normal educational practices. When examining these components closer, Brick Kerr and Will Miller (1997) have found they have a negative impact on minority students. Ability grouping is a form of segregation that separates minority students from whites. They have found that before even attempting to teach non-white students, they are diagnosed with having linguistic or intellectual problems. The students are therefore required to take special and bilingual classes, making it difficult for them to succeed. According to Robert E. England (1986), non-white students are many times pulled out of regular classes and placed into bilingual classes only on the basis of ethnicity rather than their understanding of English. Brick and Miller go on to explain that suspensions are a second tactic used to encourage the failure of minority students in school. Non-white students are given more harsh disciplinary sentences than white students. Moreover, studies show that the ratio of minority students kicked out of school is disproportionately higher than whites, making the students more likely to drop out. Marschall has found that schools also advocate differences in ability grouping and discipline, leading to distinctions in tracking between non-whites and whites. The majority white students in high ability groups are often counseled to choose college preparatory tracks. However, minorities in low ability groups are counseled into vocational or general tracks, making them less likely to attend post-secondary education. Mondack and Mutz believe that the overall pattern of racial inequality the school system has created makes non-whites less likely to receive a quality education than whites. This truth makes it difficult for economic development to occur within non-white American families. The number of children in a family lead to increased poverty levels and low economic development within non-white American families. M. Klitsch (1990) has found that minority women have children at an extensively higher rate than that of white women. Also, he states that non-white women represent a small percentage of the population, however they account for a greater number of births. Alejandro Portes and Cynthia Truelove (1987) go on to say that non-white families are generally poorer than white families because of the higher number of children in the home. This leads them to be more likely to live below the poverty line. In addition, Genevieve M. Kenney and Nancy E. Reichman (1998) have found the population of non-whites increases faster than whites every year due to high fertility rates. Similarly, the two have found that fertility rates of non-whites families living in impoverished communities is almost double compared to white families. Klitsch has found that non-white families have an estimated 5. 5 people to a household, while white families only 3. 8. Therefore, these high rates lead to low socioeconomic status, and limited opportunities to increase economic security. According to Kenney and Reichman, the high fertility rates are due to low percentages of minorities who use contraceptives. They have also found that non-white women are less likely to have an abortion than white women. One might view this as a positive aspect. However, Portes and Truelove believe that one must take into account the over a quarter of minority families who have an income below the federal poverty line, which is almost one half greater than those of white families. Therefore, the high number of children within non-white American families make them more likely to experience economic deprivation than white American families. There has been an abundance of scholarly research previously conducted on the economic differences between white and non-white American families. They usually consist of data sources such as the U. S. Immigration and Naturalization Service, and the U. S. bureau of the Census. The Foreign Born Population of the United States and Statistical Reports are used with the previously listed sources to compare ethnic groups (Friedberg and Hunt, pg. 5). These databases yield cross-sectional designs that develop into time series reports in order to make assumptions on variables dealing with GNP and income, proving distinct differences in the races under study. For instance, researchers assume that white families are more economically developed than non-whites. This is because the average white American family makes $44,000 a year, and the average non-white American family does not make half this amount (6-7). These figures are valid in drawing conclusions about correlative relationships, satisfying important ideological factors necessary to study when dealing with the dependent variable of race. A more effective method of analysis was a study derived from interviews in a low income Los Angeles county. The participants were white and non-white females. The study was conducted between January 1984 and May 1985 (M. Kitsch, 136-137). In addition, the sample consisted of a three-stage cluster of census tracks, blocks, and household addresses. This cross-sectional design embodied research dealing with fertility rates of different races. The minority women proved to have higher fertility rates in low income sectors, leading Klitsch to question the different ways non-white American families conceptualize economic development. Non-white American families have to deal with numerous accounts of racial discrimination. It is difficult for a non-white American family to become economically stable in terms of income and security plans. The reason is due to being a minority in a predominately white America. Therefore, non-white American families are less economically developed than white American families because: H1 non-white American families are less likely to participate in elections than white American families. H2 non-white Americans are more likely to be discriminated against in school than white Americans. H3 the more children in a household, the more likely a family will be economically deprived. Implications and Conclusion: Education, political participation, and the number of children a family has all affect the levels of economic development within the household for white American families. Even though education levels has a stronger affect toward higher levels of income, when the three variables are measured together, they are all highly statistically significant. In non-white American homes, education levels appears to be the key determinant of their economic status. Further test need to be measured in reference to how the number of children a family has and political participation affect the economic security of non-white American families. With this, the above hypotheses will prove to have more validity. However, in both cases it was important to measure education, the number of children a family has, and political participation together in order to understand the affect these variables have on each other, and how this affect leads to higher or lower levels of economic development within the family. These multivariate studies are also important in predicting the affect the independent variables will have on total family income in the future. It can be assumed that the highest year of school completed will continue to have a strong affect toward economic development in the future for both white and non-white American families. In addition, the number of children in a white American family and their political participation are significant variables to measure when determining their economic standpoint in future years to come. There are alternative approaches to identifying explanations to why non-white American families are less economically developed than white American families. One example is the difference in income between non-white and white American families who have single parents and ones that have two parents. Another alternative approach is identifying education as only an antecedent variable, and observing how it relates to occupation, the true independent variable under study. From here, one can observe how economic development is related to a persons occupation within the home. As anyone who walks the streets of Americas largest cities knows, there has been a profound transformation of different ethnic cultures within the United States. The rapidity of the change has led to growing competition of economic development between white and non-white American families. This competition has lead to ethnic prejudice and discrimination as the United States continues to assimilate into the melting pot for the American dream. Political participation, education, and the number of children within the home are variables that allow the transition to become a less arduous process for white American families. However, if non-white American families continue to do poorly in terms of economic development because of these variables, non-whites will continue to lag behind the income scale in comparison to whites. Research along these lines will lead to the study of relative differences between ethnic cultures. An example is the discovery of why almost half the number of minorities return to their country of origin after experiences of economic injustice. Previous research may also benefit other analysis in the field of economics by itemizing fertility rates in terms of the higher number of non-white American families who lack the finances to properly nourish their children. These new variables along with my research can in time become valid determinants in explaining why white American families are economically better off that non-white American families.

Sunday, July 21, 2019

VLSI Design and Embedded Systems

VLSI Design and Embedded Systems CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Motivation Phase locked loop (PLL) [1-3] is the heart of the many modern electronics as well as communication system. Recently plenty of the researches have conducted on the design of phase locked loop (PLL) circuit and still research is going on this topic. Most of the researches have conducted to realize a higher lock range PLL with lesser lock time [4] and have tolerable phase noise. The most versatile application of the phase locked loops (PLL) is for clock generation and clock recovery in microprocessor, networking, communication systems, and frequency synthesizers. Phase locked-loops (PLLs) are commonly used to generate well-timed on-chip clocks in high-performance digital systems. Modern wireless communication systems employ Phase Locked Loop (PLL) mainly for synchronization, clock synthesis, skew and jitter reduction [5]. Phase locked loops find wide application in several modern applications mostly in advance communication and instrumentation systems. PLL being a mixed signal circuit i nvolves design challenge at high frequency. Since its inspection in early 1930s, where it was used in the synchronization of the horizontal and vertical scans of television, it has come to an advanced form of integrated circuit (IC). Today found uses in many other applications. The first PLL ICs were available around 1965; it was built using purely analog component. Recent advances in integrated circuit design techniques have led to the development of high performance PLL which has become more economical and reliable. Now a whole PLL circuit can be integrated as a part of a larger circuit on a single chip. There are mainly five blocks in a PLL. These are phase frequency detector (PFD), charge pump (CP), low pass loop filter (LPF), voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) and frequency divider. Presently almost all communication and electronics devices operate at a higher frequency, so for that purpose we need a faster locking PLL. So there are a lot of challenges in designing the mentioned different blocks of the PLL to operate at a higher frequency. And these challenges motivated me towards this research topic. In this work mainly the faster locking of the PLL is concentrated by properly choosing the circuit architectures and parameters. The optimization of the VCO circuit is also carried out in this work to get a better frequency precision. 1.2 Organization of Thesis Before going into the details of the PLL, the motivation behind this work is mentioned in the Chapter 1 of the thesis. Chapter 2 briefly describes the whole PLL system. An introduction to the PLL circuit is mentioned in the section 2.1. Section 2.2 contains the detail architecture of the whole PLL system. Different types of PLLs are mentioned in the section 2.3. Section 2.4 explains the basic terms used in the PLL system while the consecutive sections give the details about the noise and application of the PLL. Chapter 3 builds the concepts of optimization. Definition of optimization technique and different circuit optimization techniques are presented in section 3.1 and 3.2 respectively. Section 3.3 gives the brief outline of the concept of geometric programming and convex optimization. The optimization of the CSVCO circuit is explained in section 3.4. The design and synthesis of the PLL is described in Chapter 4. The different design environments used in this work is mentioned in the section 4.1. The adopted design procedure is explained in section 4.2. Section 4.3 gives the design specifications and parameters of the work. The simulation results of the different circuits used in the PLL are depicted in the different sections of the Chapter 5. The performance of the CSVCO designed using convex optimization is compared with that of the traditional method in section 5.3. Section 5.5 gives the different simulation results of the PLL and its performance comparison between schematic and post layout level. At last Chapter 6 provides the conclusion that inferred from the work. CHAPTER 2 PHASE LOCKED LOOP 2.1 Introduction A PLL is a closed-loop feedback system that sets fixed phase relationship between its output clock phase and the phase of a reference clock. A PLL is capable of tracking the phase changes that falls in this bandwidth of the PLL. A PLL also multiplies a low-frequency reference clock CKref to produce a high-frequency clock CKout this is known as clock synthesis. A PLL has a negative feedback control system circuit. The main objective of a PLL is to generate a signal in which the phase is the same as the phase of a reference signal. This is achieved after many iterations of comparison of the reference and feedback signals. In this lock mode the phase of the reference and feedback signal is zero. After this, the PLL continues to compare the two signals but since they are in lock mode, the PLL output is constant. The basic block diagram of the PLL is shown in the Figure 2.1. In general a PLL consists of five main blocks: Phase Detector or Phase Frequency Detector (PD or PFD) Charge Pump (CP) Low Pass Filter (LPF) Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) Divide by N Counter The â€Å"Phase frequency Detector† (PFD) is one of the main parts in PLL circuits. It compares the phase and frequency difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock. Depending upon the phase and frequency deviation, it generates two output signals â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN†. The â€Å"Charge Pump† (CP) circuit is used in the PLL to combine both the outputs of the PFD and give a single output. The output of the CP circuit is fed to a â€Å"Low Pass Filter† (LPF) to generate a DC control voltage. The phase and frequency of the â€Å"Voltage Controlled Oscillator† (VCO) output depends on the generated DC control voltage. If the PFD generates an â€Å"UP† signal, the error voltage at the output of LPF increases which in turn increase the VCO output signal frequency. On the contrary, if a â€Å"DOWN† signal is generated, the VCO output signal frequency decreases. The output of the VCO is then fed back to the PFD in or der to recalculate the phase difference, and then we can create closed loop frequency control system. 2.2 PLL Architecture The architecture of a charge-pump PLL is shown in Figure 2.2. A PLL comprises of several components. They are (1) phase or phase frequency detector, (2) charge pump, (3) loop filter, (4) voltage-controlled oscillator, and (5) frequency divider. The functioning of each block is briefly explained below. 2.2.1 Phase Frequency Detector The â€Å"Phase frequency Detector† (PFD) is one of the main part in PLL circuits. It compares the phase and frequency difference between the reference clock and the feedback clock. Depending upon the phase and frequency deviation, it generates two output signals â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN†. Figure 2.3 shows a traditional PFD circuit. If there is a phase difference between the two signals, it will generate â€Å"UP† or â€Å"DOWN† synchronized signals. When the reference clock rising edge leads the feedback input clock rising edge â€Å"UP† signal goes high while keeping â€Å"DOWN† signal low. On the other hand if the feedback input clock rising edge leads the reference clock rising edge â€Å"DOWN† signal goes high and â€Å"UP† signal goes low. Fast phase and frequency acquisition PFDs [6-7] are generally preferred over traditional PFD. 2.2.2 Charge Pump and Loop Filter Charge pump circuit is an important block of the whole PLL system. It converts the phase or frequency difference information into a voltage, used to tune the VCO. Charge pump circuit is used to combine both the outputs of the PFD and give a single output which is fed to the input of the filter. Charge pump circuit gives a constant current of value IPDI which should be insensitive to the supply voltage variation [8]. The amplitude of the current always remains same but the polarity changes which depend on the value of the â€Å"UP† and â€Å"DOWN† signal. The schematic diagram of the charge pump circuit with loop filter is shown in the Figure 2.4. When the UP signal goes high M2 transistor turns ON while M1 is OFF and the output current is IPDI with a positive polarity. When the down signal becomes high M1 transistor turns ON while M2 is OFF and the output current is IPDI with a negative polarity. The charge pump output current [3] is given by IPDI=IPUMP—IPUMP4Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =2IPUMP4Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =IPUMP2Ï€Ãâ€"ΔÎ ¦ =KPDIÃâ€"ΔÎ ¦ (1) Where KPDI=IPUMP2Ï€ (amps/radian) (2) The passive low pass loop filter is used to convert back the charge pump current into the voltage. The filter should be as compact as possible [9].The output voltage of the loop filter controls the oscillation frequency of the VCO. The loop filter voltage will increase if Fref rising edge leads Fin rising edge and will decrease if Fin rising edge leads Fref rising edge. If the PLL is in locked state it maintains a constant value. The VCO input voltage is given by Vinvco = KF Ãâ€" IPDI (3) Where KF is the gain of the loop filter. 2.2.3 Voltage Controlled Oscillator An oscillator is an autonomous system which generates a periodic output without any input. The most popular type of the VCO circuit is the current starved voltage controlled oscillator (CSVCO). Here the number of inverter stages is fixed with 5. The simplified view of a single stage current starved oscillator is shown in the Figure 2.5. Transistors M2 and M3 operate as an inverter while M1 and M4 operate as current sources. The current sources, Ml and M4, limit the current available to the inverter, M2 and M3; in other words, the inverter is starved for current. The desired center frequency of the designed circuit is 1GHz with a supply of 1.8V. The CSVCO is designed both in usual manner as mentioned in [3], [10, 11]. The general circuit diagram of the current starved voltage controlled oscillator is shown in the Figure 2.6. To determine the design equations for the CSVCO, consider the simplified view of VCO in Figure 2.5. The total capacitance on the drains of M2 and M3 is given by Ctot=52Cox(LpWp+LnWn) (4) The time it takes to charge Ctot from zero to VSP with the constant current ID4 is given by t1=VSPID4Ãâ€"Ctot (5) While the time it takes to discharge Ctot from VDD to VSP is given by t1=VDD-VSPID1Ãâ€"Ctot (6) If we set ID4= ID1=ID then the sum of t1 and t2 is given by t1+t2=VDDIDÃâ€"Ctot (7) The oscillation frequency of CSVCO for N number of stage is fosc=1Nt1+t2=IDNCtotVDD (8) This is equal to fcenter when Vinvco=VDD2 (9) The gain of the VCO is given by KVCO=fmax-fminVmax-Vmin HzV (10) 2.2.4 Frequency Divider The output of the VCO is fed back to the input of PFD through the frequency divider circuit. The frequency divider in the PLL circuit forms a closed loop. It scales down the frequency of the VCO output signal. A simple D flip flop (DFF) acts as a frequency divider circuit. The schematic of a simple DFF based divide by 2 frequency divider circuit is shown in the Figure 2.7. 2.3 Types of PLL There are mainly 4 types of PLL are available. They are . Liner PLL Digital PLL All Digital PLL Soft PLL 2.4 Terms in PLL 2.4.1 Lock in Range Once the PLL is in lock state what is the range of frequencies for which it can keep itself locked is called as lock in range. This is also called as tracking range or holding range. 2.4.2 Capture Range When the PLL is initially not in lock, what frequency range can make PLL lock is called as capture range. This is also known as acquisition range. This is directly proportional to the LPF bandwidth. Reduction in the loop filter bandwidth thus improves the rejection of the out of band signals, but at the same time the capture range decreases, pull in time becomes larger and phase margin becomes poor. 2.4.3 Pull in Time The total time taken by the PLL to capture the signal (or to establish the lock) is called as Pull in Time of PLL. It is also called as Acquisition Time of PLL. 2.4.4 Bandwidth of PLL Bandwidth is the frequency at which the PLL begins to lose the lock with reference. 2.5 Noises in PLL The output of the practical system deviates from the desired response. This is because of the imperfections and noises in the system. The supply noise also affects the output noise of the PLL system [12]. There are mainly 4 types of noises. They are explained below. 2.5.1 Phase Noise The phase fluctuation due to the random frequency variation of a signal is called as phase noise. This is mostly affected by oscillators frequency stability. The main sources of the phase noise in PLL are oscillator noise [12-15], PFD and frequency divider circuit. The main components of the phase noise are thermal and flicker noise. 2.5.2 Jitter A jitter is the short term-term variations of a signal with respect to its ideal position in time [16-19]. This problem negatively impacts the data transmission quality. Jitter and phase noise are closely related and can be computed one from another [18]. Deviation from the ideal position can occur on either leading edge or trailing edge of signal. Jitter may be induced and coupled onto a clock signal from several different sources and is not uniform over all frequencies. Excessive jitter can increase bit error rate (BER) of communication signal [19]. In digital system Jitter leads to violation in time margins, causing circuits to behave improperly. 2.5.3 Spur Non-desired frequency content not related to the frequency of oscillation and its harmonics is called as â€Å"Spur†. There are mainly two types of spur. They are reference spur and fractional spur. Reference spur comes into picture in an integer PLL while fractional spur plays a major role in fractional PLL. When the PLL is in lock state the phase and frequency inputs to the PFD are essentially equal. There should not be any error output from the PFD. Since this can create problem, so the PFD is designed such that, in the locked state the current pulses from the CP will have a very narrow width as shown in the Figure 2.9. Because of this the input control voltage of the VCO is modulated by the reference signal and thus produces â€Å"Reference Spur† [20]. 2.5.4 Charge Pump Leakage Current When the CP output from the synthesizer is programmed to the high impedance state, in practice there should not be any current flow. But in practical some leakage current flows in the circuit and this is known as â€Å"charge pump leakage current† [20]. 2.6 Applications of PLL The demand of the PLL circuit increases day by day because of its wide application in the area of electronics, communication and instrumentation. The recent applications of the PLL circuits are in memories, microprocessors, hard disk drive electronics, RF and wireless transceivers, clock recovery circuits on microcontroller boards and optical fiber receivers. Some of the PLL applications are mentioned below. 1. Frequency Synthesis A frequency synthesizer is an electronic system for generating a range of frequencies from a single fixed time base or oscillator. 2. Clock Generation Many electronic systems include processors of various sorts that operate at hundreds of megahertz. Typically, the clocks supplied to these processors come from clock generator PLLs, which multiply a lower-frequency reference clock (usually 50 or 100 MHz) up to the operating frequency of the processor. The multiplication factor can be quite large in cases where the operating frequency is multiple GHz and the reference crystal is just tens or hundreds of megahertz. 3. Carrier Recovery (Clock Recovery) Some data streams, especially high-speed serial data streams (such as the raw stream of data from the magnetic head of a disk drive), are sent without an accompanying clock. The receiver generates a clock from an approximate frequency reference, and then phase-aligns to the transitions in the data stream with a PLL. This process is referred to as clock recovery. 4. SkewReduction This is one of the very popular and earliest uses of PLL. Suppose synchronous pair of data and clock lines enter a large digital chip. Since clock typically drives a large number of transistors and logic interconnects, it is first applied to large buffer. Thus, the clock distributed on chip may suffer from substantial skew with respect to data. This is an undesirable effect which reduces the timing budget for on-chip operations. 5. Jitter and Noise Reduction One desirable property of all PLLs is that the reference and feedback clock edges be brought into very close alignment. The average difference in time between the phases of the two signals when the PLL has achieved lock is called the static phase offset. The variance between these phases is called tracking jitter. Ideally, the static phase offset should be zero, and the tracking jitter should be as low as possible. CHAPTER 3 CONVEX OPTIMIZATION OF VCO IN PLL 3.1 What is an optimization technique? Optimization technique is nothing but the finding of the action that optimizes i.e. minimizes or maximizes the result of the objective function. Optimization technique is applied to the circuits aiming at finding out the optimized circuit design parameter to achieve either the best performance or the desired performance. Optimization techniques are a set of most powerful tools that are used in efficiently handling the design resources and there by achieve the best result. Mainly optimization techniques are applied to the circuit for the selection of the component values, devices sizes, and value of the voltage or current source. 3.2 Types of circuit optimization method There are mainly four types of circuit optimization methods exist. They are Classical optimization Knowledge based optimization Global optimization method Convex optimization and geometric programming 3.2.1 Classical Optimization Methods: In case of analog circuit CAD, classical optimization methods [21], such as steepest descent, sequential quadratic programming, and Lagrange multiplier methods are mainly used. These methods are used with more complicated circuit models, including even full SPICE simulations in each iteration. This method can handle a wide variety of problem. For this there is a need of a set of performance measures and computation of one or more derivatives. The main disadvantage of the classical optimization methods is that the global optimal solution is not possible. This method fails to find a feasible design even one exist. This method gives only the local minima instead of global solution. Since many different initial designs are considered to get the global optimization, the method becomes slower. Because of the human intervention (to give â€Å"good† initial designs), the method becomes less automated. The classical methods become slow if complex models are used. 3.2.2 Knowledge-Based Methods: Knowledge-based and expert-systems methods such as genetic algorithm or evolution systems, systems based on Fuzzy logic, and heuristics-based systems have also been widely used in analog circuit CAD [21]. In case of knowledge based methods, there are few limitations on the types of problems, specifications, and performance measures that are to be considered. These methods do not require the computation of the derivatives. This is not possible to find a global optimal design solution using these methods. The final design is decided on the basis of the initial design chosen and the algorithm parameters. The disadvantage of the knowledge based methods is that they simply fail to find a feasible solution even when one may exist. There is a need of human intervention during the design and the training process. 3.2.3 Global Optimization Methods: Global optimization methods such as branch and bound and simulated annealing are also used in analog circuit design [21]. These methods are guaranteed to find the global optimal design solution. The global optimal design is determined by the branch and bound methods unambiguously. In each iteration, a suboptimal feasible design and also a lower bound on the achievable performance is maintained by this method. This enables the algorithm to terminate non-heuristically, i.e., with complete confidence that the global design has been found within a given tolerance. The branch and bound method is extremely slow, with computation growing exponentially with problem size. The trapping in a locally optimal design can be avoided by using simulated annealing (SA). This method can compute the global optimal solution but not guaranteed. Since there is no real-time lower bound is available, so termination is heuristic. This method can also handle a wide variety of performance indices and objects. T he main advantage of SA is that it handles the continuous variables and discrete variables problems efficiently and reduces the chances of getting a non-globally optimal design. The only problem with this method is that it is very slow and can not guarantee a global optimal solution. 3.2.4 Convex Optimization and Geometric Programming Methods: Geometric programming methods are special optimization problems in which the objective and constraint functions are all convex [22-24]. Convex optimization technique can solve the problems having a large number of variables and constraints very efficiently [22]. The main advantage of this method for which people generally adopt is that the method gives the global solution. Infeasibility is unambiguously detected. Since a lower bound on the achievable performance is given, so the method uses a completely non- heuristic stopping criterion. 3.3 Geometric programming and convex optimization Geometric programming is a special type of optimization technique in which all the objective must be convex. Before applying this technique it has to confirm that whether the given problem is convex optimization problem or not. Convex optimization problem means the problem of minimizing a convex function subject to convex inequality constraints and linear equality constraints. In IC integration convex optimization and geometric programming has become a more efficient computational tool for optimization purpose. This method has an ability to handle thousands of variables and constraints and solve efficiently. The main advantage of convex optimization technique is that it gives the global optimized value and the robust design. The fact that geometric programs can be solved very efficiently has a number of practical consequences. For example, the method can be used to simultaneously optimize the design of a large number of circuits in a single large mixed-mode integrated circuit. The de signs of the individual circuits are coupled by constraints on total power and area, and by various parameters that affect the circuit coupling such as input capacitance, output resistance, etc. Convex optimization is used to find out the optimized value of these parameter and sizing of the devices in the circuit [25]. Another application is to use the efficiency to obtain robust designs i.e., designs that are guaranteed to meet a set of specifications over a variety of processes or technology parameter values. This is done by simply replicating the specifications with a (possibly large) number of representative process parameters, which is practical only because geometric programs with thousands of constraints are readily solved. A real valued function fx defined on an interval (space) is called convex if ftx1+1-tx2≠¤tfx1+1-tfx2 (11) For every t,0 In the Figure 3.1 function fx is represented as a convex function on an interval. The convex optimization problem is in the form of minimize f0x Subjected to fix≠¤1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, m gix=1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, p xi>1 , i=1, 2, 3†¦, n Where fix is a posynomial function gix is a monomial function Let x1,x2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦xn be n real positive variables. We can denote the vector (xi,xi†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.xi) of these variables asx. A function f is called a posynomial function of x if it has the form fix1,x2†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦xn=k=1tCkx1ÃŽ ±1kx2ÃŽ ±2k†¦..xnÃŽ ±nk (12) Where Cj≠¥0 and ÃŽ ±ij à Ã‚ µ R. The coefficients Cj must be nonnegative but the exponents ÃŽ ±ij can be any real numbers including negative or fractional. When there is exactly one nonzero term in the sum i.e. t=1 and C1>0, we call f is a monomial function. 3.3.1 Advantages:  § Handle thousands of variables and constraints and solve efficiently.  § Global optimization can be obtained. 3.3.2 Disadvantages: * Strictly limited to types of problems, performance specification and objectives that can be handled. 3.4 Optimization of the VCO circuit In my earlier design of the VCO circuit, the sizes of all the five inverter stages are same. Now the convex optimization technique is applied to find out the optimal scaling ratio of the different inverter stages to get the optimal design with a better performance. There are 5 inverter stages and the design has to give a delay of 100ps. The load capacitance of the VCO circuit is 65 fF. All these design constraints are formulated and applied to the convex optimization technique. Mainly optimization techniques are applied for selection of component values and transistor sizing. In this work I have used the geometric programming technique to find out the optimized scaling ratio of the different stages in CSVCO to meet the desired center frequency with lesser deviation. Let xi is the scaling ration of the ith stage, CL is the load capacitance, and D is the total delay of the inverter stages then optimization problem is in the form of Minimize sum (xi) Subjected to CL≠¤CLmax D≠¤Dmax Where CLmax and Dmax are required design parameters and has a constant value. CHAPTER 4 DESIGN AND SYNTHESIS OF PLL 4.1 Design Environment The schematic level design entry of the circuits is carried out in the CADENCE Virtuoso Analog Design Environment. The layout of the PLL is designed in Virtuoso XL using GPDK090 library. In order to analyze the performances, these circuits are simulated in the Spectre simulator of CADENCE tool. Different performance indices such as phase noise, power consumption and lock time are measured in this environment. Transient, parametric sweep and phase noise analyses are carried out in this work to find out the performances of the circuit. The optimization of the current starved VCO circuit, the scale factor for transistor sizing is found out using the MATLAB environment. 4.2 Design Procedure 4.2.1 VCO Design Since VCO is the heart of the whole PLL system, it should be designed in a proper manner. The design steps for the current starved VCO are as follows. Step 1 Find the value of the propagation delay for each stage of the inverter in the VCO circuit using the following equation. Ï„p=1Nf (13) Where Ï„p= Ï„phl= Ï„plh= half of the propagation delay time of the inverter N= no of inverter stages f= required center frequency of oscillation Step 2 Find the WL ratio for the transistors in the different inverter stages using the equation in below. WL n=CloadÏ„phl µnCoxVdd-VT,n2VT,nVdd-VT,n+ln4Vdd-VT,nVdd-1 (14) WL p=CloadÏ„plh µpCoxVdd-VT,p2VT,pVdd-VT,p+ln4Vdd-VT,pVdd-1 (15) Step 3 After finding the WL ratio, find the values for W and L. Step 4 Find the value of the total capacitance form the expression Ctot=52Cox(LpWp+LnWn) (16) Where Cox is the oxide capacitance Lp,Wp,Ln,Wn is the width and length of the PMOS and NMOS transistors in the inverter stages. Step 5 Calculate the value of drain current for the center frequency which is given by IDcenter=NCtotVddf (17) Step 6 Find the WL ratio for the current starving transistors in the circuit from the drain current expression which is represented as WL n=2Ãâ€"IDcenter µnCoxVgs-VT,n2 (18) Similarly WL p=2.5Ãâ€"WL n (19) 4.2.2 Design of Phase Locked Loop The value of the charge pump current and the component parameters of the loop filter play a major role in the design of the phase locked loop circuit. The value of the lock time mainly depends upon these parameters. So while designing the circuit proper care should be taken in calculating these parameters. For the given values of reference(Fref) and output frequency(Fout) as well as the lock in range, the following steps to be carried out in designing the filter circuit. Step 1 Find the value of the divider circuit to be used which is given by n=FoutFref (20) Step 2 Find the value of the natural frequency (ωn) from the lock in range as given below lock in range=2Ãâ€"ÃŽ ¾Ãƒâ€"ωn (21) Step 3 Find the value of the charge pump gain (KPDI) from the charge pump current used in the circuit which is given by KPDI=Ipump2Ï€ (Amps/radian) (22) Step 4 Find the value of the gain of the VCO (Kvco) circuit from the characteristics curve using the following expression. Kvco=fmax-fminVmax-Vmin (Hz/V) (23) Step 5 Find the values of the loop filter component parameters using the following expressions. C1=KPDIÃâ€"KvcoNωn2 (24) C2=C110 (25) R=2ÃŽ ¾Ãâ€°nC1 (26) 4.3 Design Specifications and Parameters 4.3.1 VCO Design Specification The current starved VCO design specifications are mentioned in the following table. Table 1 VCO design specifications 4.3.2 VCO Design Parameters Table 2 List of design parameters of the CSVCO circuit 4.3.3 PLL Design Parameters The whole PLL system design specifications and parameters are shown in the Table 3. Parameter Value Reference frequency((Fref) 500 MHz output frequency(Fout) 1 GHz Lock in range 100 MHz